癲癇在全球影響著大約5000萬人,盡管它相對普遍,但目前為止還沒有確定某一種特定的細胞類型或通路是產(chǎn)生該疾病的主要原因。星形膠質(zhì)細胞一直是大量癲癇研究中的主要研究對象。然而,關(guān)于星形膠質(zhì)細胞對癲癇是產(chǎn)生正向或反向的作用的仍然沒有明確的答案。最近的研究則表明星形膠質(zhì)細胞與中腦星形膠質(zhì)細胞源性神經(jīng)營養(yǎng)因子(Mesencephalic Astrocyte-derived Neurotrophic Factor,MANF)可能具有預防作用。
關(guān)于癲癇我們知道些什么?
癲癇會影響中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)(CNS),導致大腦發(fā)生多種變化,從而導致復發(fā)性和無端癲癇的發(fā)作。顳葉癲癇(Temporal lobe epilepsy,TLE)是最常見的癲癇形式,不幸的是,它也很容易對目前可用的抗癲癇藥物(AEDs)產(chǎn)生耐藥性。癲癇患者可選擇的抗癲癇藥物在預防癲癇發(fā)作方面具有非常不同的藥理學特征和不同程度的功效,因為它們通常只降低過度興奮性,而不影響致癇過程。目前的AEDs通常通過調(diào)節(jié)離子通道或增強-氨基丁酸功能起作用,但這可能導致不良的生理和行為影響(如下表)。更好地理解癲癇的潛在機制將產(chǎn)出更好的治療方法。
抗癲癇藥物 | 全身不良反應 | 神經(jīng)不良反應 | 其他罕見不良反應 |
布瓦西坦 Brivaracetam |
Nausea, vomiting, constipation, fatigue | Headache, somnolence, dizziness, abnormal coordination, nystagmus, mood changes | |
卡馬西平 Carbamazepine |
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, a plastic anemia, leukopenia, hyponatremia (common reason for discontinuation), hepatotoxicity, rash, pruritus | Ataxia, dizziness, blurred vision, diplopia, headache | Erythematous maculopapular rash (Steven‐Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis), teratogenicity |
森巴考特 Cenobamate |
Nausea, vomiting, fatigue, hyperkalemia, QT shortening | Somnolence, dizziness, headache, balance disorder, diplopia | Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS)/multiorgan hypersensitivity (at high doses) |
艾司利卡西平 Eslicarbazepine |
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hyponatremia, rash | Dizziness, drowsiness, headache, somnolence, diplopia, ataxia, blurred vision, tremor | |
乙琥胺 Ethosuximide |
Nausea, vomiting | Sleep disturbance, drowsiness, hyperactivity | |
非爾氨酯 Felbamate |
Nausea, vomiting, anorexia, weight loss | Insomnia, dizziness, headache, ataxia | Aplastic anemia, severe hepatitis/hepatic failure |
加巴噴丁 Gabapentin |
Infrequent | Somnolence, dizziness, ataxia, headache, tremor, and fatigue | |
拉科酰胺 Lacosamide |
Nausea, vomiting, increased cardiac conduction (PR interval) | Dizziness, ataxia, diplopia, headache | |
拉莫三嗪 Lamotrigine |
Nausea, rash, cardiac arrhythmias | Dizziness, tremor, diplopia | Steven‐Johnson syndrome |
左乙拉西坦 Levetiracetam |
Fatigue, infection, anemia, leukopenia | Somnolence, dizziness, agitation, anxiety, irritability, depression, psychosis | |
奧卡西平 Oxcarbazepine |
Nausea, rash, hyponatremia (more common) | Somnolence, headache, dizziness, vertigo, ataxia, diplopia | |
吡侖帕奈 Perampanel |
Weight gain, fatigue, nausea | Dizziness, somnolence, irritability, gait disturbance, falls (with high dose), aggression, mood alteration | |
魯米那 Phenobarbital |
Nausea, rash | Somnolence, ataxia, dizziness, confusion, cognitive dysfunction, tolerance, dependence | |
苯妥英 Phenytoin |
Gingival hyperplasia, hirsutism, megaloblastic anemia, peripheral neuropathy, osteoporosis, rash | Nystagmus (early sign of phenytoin administration), diplopia, ataxia, somnolence | |
普瑞巴林 Pregabalin |
Weight gain, peripheral edema, dry mouth | Somnolence, dizziness, ataxia, headache, and tremor | |
盧非酰胺 Rufinamide |
Nausea, vomiting, leukopenia, cardiac conduction (QT interval shortening) | Somnolence, fatigue, dizziness, ataxia, headache, diplopia | |
噻加賓 Tiagabine |
Abdominal pain, nausea, lack of energy | Dizziness, difficulty concentrating, somnolence, nervousness, tremor, language problems | |
托吡酯 Topiramate |
Anorexia, weight loss, paresthesia, fatigue | Nervousness, psychomotor slowing, language problems, depression, anxiety, mood problems, tremor | Acute glaucoma (may require prompt drug withdrawal). |
丙戊酸鈉 Valproate |
Gastrointestinal irritation, weight gain, hair loss, easy bruising | Ataxia, somnolence, tremor | Hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, and thrombocytopenia |
氨己烯酸 Vigabatrin |
Fatigue | Somnolence, headache, dizziness, agitation, confusion, psychosis. | Irreversible bilateral concentric visual field defect |
唑尼沙胺 Zonisamide |
Weight loss, nausea, anorexia | Somnolence, dizziness, confusion, headache, psychosis | Potentially serious skin rashes |
表1. 部分抗癲癇藥物的常見及嚴重不良反應 (Neuropharmacology of Antiseizure Drugs, Neuropsychopharmacology Reports)
星形膠質(zhì)細胞的雙刃劍特性
在尋找癲癇的病因時,許多人將注意力轉(zhuǎn)向了星形膠質(zhì)細胞。這是因為我們不僅在與癲癇發(fā)作相關(guān)的大腦多個區(qū)域(例如在TLE中的海馬體)中看到了星形膠質(zhì)細胞數(shù)量的增加,我們還在癲癇發(fā)作大腦特定位置中不斷發(fā)現(xiàn)由反應性星形膠質(zhì)細胞引起的膠質(zhì)瘤疤痕。
(Portrait of glial scar in neurological diseases, Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol.)
這些反應性星形膠質(zhì)細胞被稱為A1星形膠質(zhì)細胞,被認為是神經(jīng)毒性的,通常由神經(jīng)炎性小膠質(zhì)細胞激活。《Cell》期刊中報道了,A1星形膠質(zhì)細胞可導致突觸生成喪失、少突膠質(zhì)細胞誘導和神經(jīng)元死亡。
但星形膠質(zhì)細胞有另一種表型,被稱為A2,在這種狀態(tài)下,它們具有神經(jīng)保護作用,在脊髓損傷后促進神經(jīng)修復和脫髓鞘。A2星形膠質(zhì)細胞上調(diào)一些生長因子,并有助于炎癥的解決和CNS修復。
那么,星形膠質(zhì)細胞對癲癇或其他疾病有神經(jīng)保護作用嗎?正如你可能猜到的那樣,答案并不那么明確。當涉及到正常生理功能時,星形膠質(zhì)細胞確實是一把雙刃劍,這使得理清它們在疾病中的作用更具挑戰(zhàn)性。
星形膠質(zhì)細胞的預防作用?
有很多證據(jù)表明星形膠質(zhì)細胞與癲癇發(fā)作有關(guān)。星形細胞是癲癇發(fā)作灶的常見特征,星形細胞功能障礙似乎有助于突觸傳遞和過度興奮性的改變。星形膠質(zhì)細胞還可以誘導炎癥,從而導致癲癇和復發(fā)性癲癇發(fā)作。已知星形膠質(zhì)細胞是通過下調(diào)谷氨酰胺合成酶在癲癇發(fā)作灶引起高水平谷氨酸(在癲癇發(fā)作活動的起始和擴散中起作用)的原因。這導致谷氨酸釋放到細胞外空間,引發(fā)神經(jīng)元興奮和癲癇。星形膠質(zhì)細胞膨脹時也可能釋放谷氨酸,這是血管周圍星形膠質(zhì)細胞膜上水通道蛋白-4 (AQP4)表達減少的結(jié)果。
但是星形膠質(zhì)細胞如何作為預防細胞的呢?為此,我們需要看看在早期腫瘤(ARMET)中突變的MANF,也被稱為富含精氨酸的MANF。MANF是內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)(ER)應激誘導的,最初被確定為一種分泌因子,可在體外保護大鼠多巴胺能神經(jīng)元,防止帕金森病的神經(jīng)退行性變。
研究表明,癲癇和缺血性損傷后,MANF在大腦皮層、海馬、小腦浦肯野細胞中表達較高,而癲癇損傷后海馬齒狀顆粒細胞層、丘腦網(wǎng)狀核及部分皮層區(qū)域MANF mRNA表達暫時升高。研究還表明,MANF在動物模型中發(fā)揮了一系列保護作用:它促進組織修復,保護心臟免受缺血損傷,具有神經(jīng)修復特性,甚至可以通過抑制缺血誘導的細胞凋亡來防止神經(jīng)元丟失。
(MANF is widely expressed in mammalian tissues and differently regulated after ischemic and epileptic insults in rodent brain, Cell)
星形膠質(zhì)細胞與MANF表達
來自Alomone團隊的Shai Shoham博士,一直致力于研究星形膠質(zhì)細胞中MANF表達的可能性。為了研究這個課題,他使用了一個小鼠模型,在該模型中,用紅氨酸鹽誘導癲癇發(fā)作,紅氨酸鹽是一種谷氨酸類似物,刺激海馬通路中的傳輸以誘導癲癇發(fā)作。隨后的細胞級聯(lián)導致星形膠質(zhì)細胞激活和海馬神經(jīng)回路的重組-級聯(lián)似乎涉及內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應激(我們知道誘導MANF釋放)。 注射紅酸鹽后,Shoham博士使用Alomone的cutting-edge抗體來突出海馬齒狀回(DG)和CA1中的MANF和典型星形膠質(zhì)細胞標記物,GFAP。
紅氨酸注射兩小時后,癲癇發(fā)作,MANF表達則僅限于神經(jīng)元核內(nèi),這與對照小鼠的情況非常相似(如圖1)。然而4個小時以后,在注射紅氨酸后4天和30天,星形膠質(zhì)細胞在海馬齒狀回分子層和CA1的輻射層和東方層中開始表達MANF(如圖2)
圖1. Hippocampal dentate gyrus regions in control mice and mice injected with kainate. MANF (green, vertical arrows) (#ANT-028) appears in neuronal nuclei in the granule layer (GL) and hilus (H). Several astrocytes (GFAP, red) in the molecular layer (ML, horizontal arrows) do not express MANF.
圖2. Hippocampal dentate gyrus regions in mice injected with kainate. MANF (green) (#ANT-028) appears in neuronal nuclei in the granule layer (GL) and hilus (H). Several astrocytes (GFAP, red) in the molecular layer (ML, horizontal arrows) express MANF.
這表明,紅氨酸誘導的癲癇發(fā)作后的級聯(lián)事件導致MANF表達上調(diào),特別是在海馬的星形膠質(zhì)細胞中。有趣的是,這種星形細胞的MANF表達至少持續(xù)30天,并可能有助于保護機制。
Reference:
1.Stafstrom CE. Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs: the search for synergy. Curr Opin Neurol. 2010 Apr;23(2):157-63. doi: 10.1097/WCO.0b013e32833735b5. PMID: 20125013.